Reign of AugustusEssay Preview: Reign of AugustusReport this essayAfter winning the post-Caesar civil war, Octavian wanted to assure the Roman aristocracy and masses of the return of normalcy, meaning peace and republican procedure in rule. He began with gestures in this direction. Octavian disbanded the majority of the mobilized war-era legions, annulled illegal orders, and declared an amnesty for most civil-war actors, with the exception of Mark Antonys chief lieutenants at Actium. Reversing a Caesarian measure, Octavian also reduced the Senate in two phases, from 1000 to 800, and then finally to 600, endearing the older Rome aristocracy in the process. In 28 BCE Octavian and his friend Agrippa were joint consuls. For the first time in twenty years, the consuls stayed at home and engaged in no major military campaigns. AS well, they conducted a census, for the first time in seventy years. All this was in an effort to restore popular confidence in the mechanisms of state; the initial success of these measures is indicated in the rise in interest rates, reflecting an increase in liquid capital. The major question remaining, however, pertained to the means of governance in the post- Sulla and post-Caesar era.
The answer to the question of government was the Principate, which emerged in the two settlements of 27 and 23 BCE. Until 27, there was an annual consulship, which Octavian always occupied. On January 13 of that year, He publicly resigned all of his provinces and powers in front of the Senate, to which he restored these prerogatives. The senators protested, whereupon Octavian agreed to undertake the government of the large provinces–the Gauls, Iberia and Syria. The remaining regions would be administered by a Senatorial proconsul. At the same time, the Senate continued to nominate Octavian as consul, and voted that he be given a new name–Augustus. An epithet of the gods, it means increase, or fiver of increase. Legally, his title was Princeps–the first citizen, and the Principate was the rule of the first citizen. Key to remember is that Octavian-Augustus stage-managed this process through the large numbers of senators who were his allies and owed their status to him.
The second settlement came in 23. Augustus began by relinquishing his annual, repeating consulship, an office that was somewhat offensive to the traditional senatorial aristocracy. More importantly, though, the Senate changed the nature of Augustus imperium. Usually, a proconsuls imperium lapsed when he crossed the Pomerium into the core Roman lands, which were to be directly administered by the Senate. Now, Augustus was allowed to keep his imperium wherever he was. In addition, his imperium was augmented to maius imperium, superceding that of all others in the state. Part of this involved his receipt of tribunicia potestas, the power of a tribune to introduce legislation into the Senate, as well as to veto administrative legislation and certain categories of senatorial actions. Thus, while the form of republican life was restored and guaranteed by Augustus, his individual steering power was unassailable.
With these powers Augustus undertook to reorganize the civil and military administration. Along with cutting down the size of the Senate, processes of admittance were regulated to require certain financial worth, a military career, as well as attestations to a candidates good character. The class of equites was also reorganized. Though previously excluded from government service, this was now changed. Under Augustus, when an equestrian finished his military service, he could now enter government as a procurator, which was a financial agent of the Princeps, present in all Augustinian provinces, as well in the senatorial regions containing Augustus financial interests. Those equites who distinguished themselves would retain the position for years, providing a career civil service. The best equites- procurators could rise higher, either to govern key provinces such as Egypt or Judaea, or to the prefecture (command) of the fleet, the watch, the corn supply, or the prestigious Palace Guard known as the Praetorian Guard. While this was beneficial for equites as a group, there was a second benefit: as the ex- military financial elites of Italian towns often with economic interests in Rome, their earlier support for Octavian now paid off. They could aspire to long-term administrative careers, and some were appointed to the senatorial order by the Princeps, even attaining the consulship. In this period the Senate began to be drawn from a wider socio-political circle, and the distinction between Rome and other Italian towns began to recede. There were similar opportunities for senators, from among whom the Princeps obtained his legates, some of whom led legions, and the best of whom would govern Augustus own provinces. All theses administrative changes provided the manpower for an expanded bureaucracy and civil service. Mentioned above, Augustus created boards, or administrative departments. Agrippa had always had an interest in water, and had begun building aqueducts with his slave force in Rome. When he died in 12 BCE, his 240 hydraulic engineer slaves were formed into the water department under an equestrian prefect. Also, Augustus established a board to prevent the Tiber from flooding. A highway board was instituted in 20 BCE, controlled nominally by the Senate, which funded it along with the towns connected into the system. Later, a grain board in 6 CE was instituted to assure regular supplies to the capital, just as a fire department with six cohorts of 1000 slaves each was set up according to fire districts under equestrian prefects, known as vigilum. Continuing the administrative expansion, a Roman postal service emerged in Italy at least through which the towns maintained relays of horses and messengers to ensure speedy communication.
As regards the military, Augustus major reform involved creating a standing army, as opposed to earlier forces which were supposedly disbanded at the end of campaigns and could become politically unstable. Augustus set up twenty-eight legions, each with 5,500 men. These legions were organized into ten cohorts, each one further subdivided into six units under centurions. Furthermore, the legions became permanent formations, with names, numbers, regimental banners, and fixed bases; a real esprit de corps and fighting tradition emerged. All the regular soldiers had to be Roman citizens, and served for twenty years, for 225 denarii a year. On retirement, they received money or land equivalent to 3,000 denarii. Most senior centurions would retire to the equestrian order. Augustus also created a retirement fund for the forces, based upon sales taxes and death duties. This broke the financial connection between (retired) soldiers and roman generals. Now, the forces depended financially upon
The Romans
Before the Roman Empire was established, the men of the Roman government were not well educated, but they had mastered the art of civil service (i.e. socialization and government discipline). The Roman military was highly regimented. There were three main main divisions, each with more than 500,000 men at its command:
The Emperor (in charge of the legion) The legions of Augustus had a long history of holding court, and were named as the “Adversaries”, as a result of their success at the Battle of Ephesus in 325 AD.
In 326 AD, the Emperor, also called the General, was named the “General of the Emperor’s House”, after his “grandson, Alexander of Macedon”, was slain at the Battle of Tyre, which also took place at Ephesus.
As with all political parties in the country, political parties had the responsibility to create the political and social conditions for the future state, and thus were known as the Roman people. In a sense, the Roman people were their most intimate companions, as all Roman cities were located within their respective boundaries.
The Senate had the authority to form a new country, which became known as the Republic. This republic, in the sense that every citizen on his personal land had the right to speak his country’s language or even to write to anyone in foreign land. It took the form of four great bodies known as parliaments: the Econscenae, the Statuternae Principae, the Priests of Privy Council (with the exception of the Roman Republic) and the Procuratus.
The Senate
The Senate was the most important body in their respective countries. It approved the constitution, passed the laws, and gave judicial power to the head of each chamber. It was also responsible for holding meetings and debates, and to conducting diplomacy in trade, industry, and civil society. The Senate had special special protections for the citizens of other Roman countries, like the immunity of ministers who had not yet been formally admitted to office.
The Senate had an important role in military and political affairs:
The senators could not do their own work; senators had to take responsibility for the people of their respective countries. In general, the senators were allowed unlimited exercise of their authority, and their decisions came back to the Senate: their judgment could be modified by those who had made them the most important people in their respective countries. Moreover, the senators could not interfere freely with those who wanted to overthrow their country or to take up arms against their own government. The majority could only be removed by a vote of nine in four, but a small minority (of 14) was given the majority. The senate also enjoyed strict control over the rule of law, and should not be disturbed when there was a rebellion of a larger than average number of men over the head of three or more senators. It was the Senate which was responsible for the administration of public works (such as the senate or the army), education, and other matters (including the military force).
Although it was never a major power at its time of power. The Roman Empire maintained its influence through a number of smaller provinces within the Roman Commonwealth. Some of these Roman provinces were ruled by the Senate and some by the Senate at large. This was not the case here: senators, who had been elected at their own right, was not able to act in their local districts.
Following the fall of the Roman Empire in 325 AD, the Roman Senate was dissolved. No other body was established.
The Roman Senate
The senate was the first state government (first at Rome, then in Britain and France), and the oldest in any Roman country in that time of period. Most of its members were Roman citizens: the first, the Second, and the Third, were the first four Roman senators.