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Learning, thinking and memory
Types of learning
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Trial and error- e.g. new products. Can be facilitated by giving away trial samples.
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Classical conditioning. Examples include credits cards as conditioned stimuli, increasing product awareness to influence attitudes and the use of theme tunes in advertising; use of incentives at work.
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Operant conditioning. Examples: use of reward vouchers or points; brand loyalty issues. Share payouts and bonus payments
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Association. Examples include: experience good markets such as holidays and children learning as consumers. Bad management e.g. absenteeism & promotion
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Imitation. Examples include learning by children and the adoption of new or innovative products. Imitation of bad management practices
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Insight. Has little relevance to consumer learning but workers may suddenly realise why a difficult job is done as it is
Reinforcement
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Positive [imagery of happy people using the product] or negative [only told when done things wrong].
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Reinforcement schedules: intermittent preferable to continuous
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Stimulus generalisation. E.g. brand loyalty.
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Stimulus discrimination. E.g. focus on product’s unique features to distinguish it from competitors
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Self-referencing. E.g. use of �you’ in advertising or in training programmes
Repetition and reinforcement
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Optimum exposure for advertisements
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2-3/week; 12 exposures minimum
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Mix of more and less �involving’ media
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Repetition may make ad appear more true or seem famous
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Primacy more important than recency for brand name
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Optimum exposure for learning to drive
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Lessons 3-4 times/week plus practice at least once per day
Who is the learner?
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Many factors are relevant to understanding the learner in work and consumer behaviour and thus segmenting the audience:
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Age, sex, motivation, incentives, expectations, learning style, prior knowledge, physical characteristics, preferred memory type, SES
What is to be learned?
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Length, difficulty, meaningfulness all relevant.
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Verbal vs. visual information:
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Contrast an ad with a lot of factual information to one with few key words
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Or how to present information in training manuals
Method of learning
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Active vs. passive learning. E.g. interactive training such as programmed learning; getting people to phone in
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Transfer of learning: of affect based on evaluative learning and of cognitive to provide �facts’
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Time scale for responses: e.g. for low-frequency purchase items
Learning theories
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Gestalt psychologists- principles include �wholeness’
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Bandura- social learning
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Pavlov and Skinner- conditioning
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Tolman- human learning is purposive
Learning styles
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Many theories of these, and some are influencing Government education policy
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Pask- serialist vs. holist
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Kolb and Honey/Mumford- four styles- active, reflective, theoretical, abstract
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Hermann- brain dominance model
Information processing and memory
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Memory theories all include:
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Input
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Sensory registers
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Short term or working memory
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Long term memory
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Response and output
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There is too much information coming in to process, so it is selectively removed
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Filters are influenced by set and expectations, motivation, perceptual defence, beliefs, personality etc.
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Coding differences between LTM and STM
LTM and STM
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STM coding errors largely acoustic rather than visual
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LTM early verbal coding may be literal, but later involves meanings
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We store propositions based on what we have read, heard or seen but we also make inferred propositions
Information processing and retrieval
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Is there one large memory store? The theory that says this is the levels of processing model.
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Maintainance rehearsal, the rote repetition of verbal information
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Elaborative rehearsal involved deeper processing and attending