IntelligenceIntelligenceIntroductionIntelligence, term usually referring to a general mental capability to reason, solve problems, think abstractly, learn and understand new material, and profit from past experience. Intelligence can be measured by many different kinds of tasks. Likewise, this ability is expressed in many aspects of a person’s life. Intelligence draws on a variety of mental processes, including memory, learning, perception, decision-making, thinking, and reasoning.
Defining IntelligenceMost people have an intuitive notion of what intelligence is, and many words in the English language distinguish between different levels of intellectual skill: bright, dull, smart, stupid, clever, slow, and so on. Yet no universally accepted definition of intelligence exists, and people continue to debate what, exactly, it is. Fundamental questions remain: Is intelligence one general ability or several independent systems of abilities? Is intelligence a property of the brain, a characteristic of behavior, or a set of knowledge and skills?
The simplest definition proposed is that intelligence is whatever intelligence tests measure. But this definition does not characterize the ability well, and it has several problems. First, it is circular: The tests are assumed to verify the existence of intelligence, which in turn is measurable by the tests. Second, many different intelligence tests exist, and they do not all measure the same thing. In fact, the makers of the first intelligence tests did not begin with a precise idea of what they wanted to measure. Finally, the definition says very little about the specific nature of intelligence.
Whenever scientists are asked to define intelligence in terms of what causes it or what it actually is, almost every scientist comes up with a different definition. For example, in 1921 an academic journal asked 14 prominent psychologists and educators to define intelligence. The journal received 14 different definitions, although many experts emphasized the ability to learn from experience and the ability to adapt to one’s environment. In 1986 researchers repeated the experiment by asking 25 experts for their definition of intelligence. The researchers received many different definitions: general adaptability to new problems in life; ability to engage in abstract thinking; adjustment to the environment; capacity for knowledge and knowledge possessed; general capacity for independence, originality, and productiveness in thinking; capacity to acquire capacity; apprehension of relevant relationships; ability to judge, to understand, and to reason; deduction of relationships; and innate, general cognitive ability.
People in the general population have somewhat different conceptions of intelligence than do most experts. Laypersons and the popular press tend to emphasize cleverness, common sense, practical problem solving ability, verbal ability, and interest in learning. In addition, many people think social competence is an important component of intelligence.
Most intelligence researchers define intelligence as what is measured by intelligence tests, but some scholars argue that this definition is inadequate and that intelligence is whatever abilities are valued by one’s culture. According to this perspective, conceptions of intelligence vary from culture to culture. For example, North Americans often associate verbal and mathematical skills with intelligence, but some seafaring cultures in the islands of the South Pacific view spatial memory and navigational skills as markers of intelligence. Those who believe intelligence is culturally relative dispute the idea that any one test could fairly measure intelligence across different cultures. Others, however, view intelligence as a basic cognitive ability independent of culture.
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In a 2012 study, a diverse group of 23 researchers assessed the validity of IQ tests using questionnaires with the ability-to-talk standard (RTSQ) test and various test-taker and interviewer questions, as well as with another question, the IQ Questionnaire of Ability to Know (QQU), to assess the validity of the standard test. These results provide insight into the evolution of the RTSQ test, which has received a number of improvements since the 1940s. More recent studies have compared several aspects of RTSQ and QQU, including those assessed by a different set of questions. Both measures have been linked to different behavioral responses and to different biological mechanisms. However, studies have suggested that a single study, conducted in different locations over a period of time, may not reliably test whether different groups are more likely to do or say exactly what it means when they’re talking to a “new-born.” As such, a wide range of studies of RTSQ, QQU, and other measures do not yet have all of the answers that they should—so in this paper we present a systematic analysis of 10 to 20% of all of the RTSQ-based IQ measures in the world. The results underscore how difficult it can be to demonstrate the validity of several IQ tests using different measures. The results also raise hopes that, as new methods of testing for cognitive skills emerge, they will be able to help determine differences in the accuracy scores of IQ test-takers and other self-reports about their abilities.
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I have written about what is known as the “genetic gap.” Genetic factors may vary depending on the place of origin. Some people have inherited specific genes, such as the hominins of some hunter-gatherer groups. They may have passed on genes from other ancestors that were passed on to others. Some people may develop additional genetic changes, which contribute to their ability to understand and reproduce. Some genes (as a result of changes during human evolution) are inherited from other peoples. For example, certain genes (especially those linked with intelligence to traits like intelligence) were common during human history, and some genes were inherited at a later stage; some are inherited from a parent. An individual’s genetic makeup is more important than his or her ability to carry out certain tasks. So genetics is an important factor in determining your ability to live a normal life.
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We are developing genetic tools to determine if some genes in your family might influence other genes. Genetic testing is taking different approaches. For instance, we’re looking at the genetics of an individual’s IQ—how well he or she integrates different aspects of intelligence and how well others do in basic social skills. Genetic testing is also examining many genetic features shared between many biological processes. We want to see if there will be a shared relationship between IQ—the abilities to understand that which others do—and other traits, such as intelligence. We’re also looking for ways to test individuals against others and measure differences in their individual abilities. Such tests may include measures of what an individual needs such as education or vocational skills, or a measure of how many different social services he or
In recent years, a number of theorists have argued that standard intelligence tests measure only a portion of the human abilities that could be considered aspects of intelligence. Other scholars believe that such tests accurately measure intelligence and that the lack of agreement on a definition of intelligence does not invalidate its measurement. In their view, intelligence is much like many scientific concepts that are accurately measured