Philo Exam Notes
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Terms:Normative ethical theoryDivine command theoryNatural law theoryElenchusEuthyphro questionDescriptive/normative claimsRationalismUtilitarianismConsequentialism HedonismAggregationismEgalitarianismIdeal observerExperience machineAct/rule utilitarianismCommon sense/revisionismPrinciple of preventing bad occurrences Negative responsibilityNormative Ethical Theory:Has to do with normsClaims what should be doneSystematic account of shouldGive meaning of terms (What is good? What is bad?)Apply these notionsIt is morally wrong to use someone as a mere instrumentPushing the large man off the bridge is using him as a mere instrumentThus, it is wrong to push the man off the bridge.Divine command theory:The content of morality is determined solely by god’s willRight conduct is in accord with what god has commanded us to doRight/wrong and good/bad all depend on the divine commandsIE. Morally right is whatever god commands; morally wrong is whatever god prohibitsNote that the traditional conception of god involves 3 central features:OmnipotenceRationality GoodnessPossible strengths of the DC theory:SimplicityObjectivityConsistency with religious faithWeakness: Euthyphro questionHorn oneSuppose we say that god commands what is right because it’s rightProblem: God’s command is not an essential feature of moral rightnessSame reducto-ad-absurdum:God commands the morally right action because it’s rightMoral rightness means “commanded by god”- God commands what is right because it’s commanded by godHorn twoSuppose we say that the right action is right because god commands itProblems:MysteryWrong reasonsMotivationArbitrariness Natural Law TheoryThe content of morality is solely a matter of god’s purposes for us and human reason can understand theseWhat is consistent with god’s purposes is right and vice versaBasic principle: morally right actions are what accord with or divinely determined purposes; morally wrong is what goes against the purposes.How do we figure out our purposes? They are clear inside social roles and social roles do seem to connect well to moral duties. But what is the purpose of humans in general? Aquinas says it can be determined through natural inclinations.
Aquinas’ argument:To act rightly is to act as to promote God-given purposesWe have natural inclinations towards those actions that help promote these purposesTherefore, to act rightly is to act with accordance to natural inclinationsWhat are those inclinations?Self preservationSexual reproduction, care for offspringThe good according to human reasonAssessing Aquinas’ argument:Concern: Is the link between inclination and function plausible? “Are we inclined to do good because its good or is it good because we’re inclined to do it?”Rachel attacks Aquinas by saying that we have inclinations that are not necessarily good. Aquinas says that only “natural” inclinations are good and they are good with accordance with our purpose. But how do we identify the natural ones?Homosexuality: in what way are homosexuals unnaturalUnnatural could mean: Abnormal (statistical infrequency)Not found in animal worldNot genetically codedContravenes with the purpose of sexual organs (Aquinas)How to combine DC and NL theories? Conclude god’s purposes by scrutinizing holy books. Elenchus: Refutation Begin with your beliefs Socrates questions beliefsOne reaches aporia: a state of perplexityEuthyphro Dilemma“Are morally good acts willed by God because they are morally good, or are they morally good because they are willed by God?”Euthyphro:Attempts to satisfy the demand for a definition:Attempt (1): holy is prosecuting his father→ does not offer a unified definition of what is holy. Attempt (2): holy is what is loved by gods → gods don’t necessarily agree on all thingsAttempt (3): holy is what is loved by ALL gods → “is the holy loved by the gods because it’s holy, or is it holy because it’s holy?”What is the force and meaning of the question?The question is another way of asking: what are the essential properties of holiness?Essential property: necessarily associated with a concept/thingNonessential property: not necessarily associated with a concept/thingDilemma: Euthyphro said:” the gods love the holy because it is holy”But this means that “loved by the gods” and holy are not the sameThe gods love the holy because it is holyHoly means loved by the gods→ the gods love the holy because it’s loved by the gods!!