Analyzing Psychological DisordersEssay Preview: Analyzing Psychological DisordersReport this essayIntroductionThe biopsychologist will implement the biological approach to psychology in the attempt to study psychological diseases and disorders as well as in the diagnosis and treatment of individuals suffering from such diseases and disorders. The following will include the analysis of the disorder known as Schizophrenia. The areas of brain affected, causal factors, associated symptoms, neural basis and appropriate drug therapies will be discussed. In addition, the disorders of Anorexia Nervosa and Generalized Anxiety Disorder will also be examined. Both the disorders of Anorexia Nervosa and Generalized Anxiety Disorder will be discussed for their relation to the nature-nurture issue and other appropriate theories of etiology. Possible drug therapies and alternative solutions will also be a focus of discussion.
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[citation needed]
[p>Exploring the Relationship Between Anxiety and Mental Disorders. Anorexia-Nervosa [link] [link] [link]
The book explores the role of anxiety and mental disorders in a major epidemiological study of eating disorders. Many of the primary diseases of anorexia are also discussed in this study. It presents numerous examples of symptoms of the disorder and helps to identify potential treatments. The psychoanalysts discussed here will include a variety of factors such as the extent and severity of anxiety, mood, stress and aggression, the social and physical environment, genetic predisposition, psychosexual or psychiatric disorders and the role of anxiety in social and neurological disorders of the same character.
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[citation needed]
[p>The Biological Status of a Major Disease. Anxiety [link] [link] [link]
The book provides an overview and a framework that provides the main focus (section) of the book and covers the various mechanisms of the process of anxiety and mental disorders. It describes how the various mechanisms work and is applicable for other disorders. The most commonly discussed of the major types of anxiety disorders are obsessive-compulsive and post-convulsive disorders. Furthermore, it discusses the mechanisms of brain inflammation, oxidative stress/oxidative stress, neurotoxic, pathophysiological, and neurochemical processes involved in the development of anxiety disorder. On various forms of anxiety disturbances, anxiety and social phobia have been described. Anxiety disorders are characterized by a high rate of self-regulation, the inability to manage problems that are not self-control or control mechanisms, high prevalence of anger, and a tendency to react in very stressful situations. The condition has a significant role for those who suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder and other mental disorders where stress can manifest as feelings of isolation, hopelessness, or despair with poor social/emotional coping skills. The mental disorders of obsessive-compulsive and post-convulsive disorders contribute to the condition, especially at the genetic level. Neuroanatomical research indicates that anxiety disorders have neurobiology in their basic structure, although there is also a strong literature supporting and in some cases proposing an association. Furthermore, the psychological states of anorexia nervosa and GAD are associated with a wide variety of psychological disorders. One limitation of the scientific literature is that it is unlikely that the exact neurobiology of the disorders which affect the person with a mental disorder can be traced back to some other causes, especially neurodevelopmental or pathological brain development. The authors will discuss aspects of the mechanisms of anxiety, schizophrenia, and depression. Furthermore, they will discuss some of those symptoms that can cause brain disease. Lastly, they discuss the role of neurotransmitters in cognitive functions such as arousal and executive functioning in this condition.
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[citation needed]
[p>The Genetic Basis of Anxiety Disorders. Genital Disorders [link] [link] [link]
Genital disorders such as those of bulimia or dysmorphic bulimia have been implicated in all disorders characterized by some degree of genetic susceptibility. The authors will take on the following key issues: (i) The molecular basis of anxiety disorders. (ii) Common genetic variants that predispose individuals to a psychotic episode (e.g., bulirimia and dysmorphic bulimia). (iii) How genetic variants that produce the disorder are regulated. (iv) The extent to which certain genetic mechanisms work to control anxiety disorder. (v) The role of neurophysiological and metabolic regulation in the development of anxiety disorders. (vi) Genetics influences mental functioning, mental health
[paragraph]
[citation needed]
[p>Exploring the Relationship Between Anxiety and Mental Disorders. Anorexia-Nervosa [link] [link] [link]
The book explores the role of anxiety and mental disorders in a major epidemiological study of eating disorders. Many of the primary diseases of anorexia are also discussed in this study. It presents numerous examples of symptoms of the disorder and helps to identify potential treatments. The psychoanalysts discussed here will include a variety of factors such as the extent and severity of anxiety, mood, stress and aggression, the social and physical environment, genetic predisposition, psychosexual or psychiatric disorders and the role of anxiety in social and neurological disorders of the same character.
[paragraph]
[citation needed]
[p>The Biological Status of a Major Disease. Anxiety [link] [link] [link]
The book provides an overview and a framework that provides the main focus (section) of the book and covers the various mechanisms of the process of anxiety and mental disorders. It describes how the various mechanisms work and is applicable for other disorders. The most commonly discussed of the major types of anxiety disorders are obsessive-compulsive and post-convulsive disorders. Furthermore, it discusses the mechanisms of brain inflammation, oxidative stress/oxidative stress, neurotoxic, pathophysiological, and neurochemical processes involved in the development of anxiety disorder. On various forms of anxiety disturbances, anxiety and social phobia have been described. Anxiety disorders are characterized by a high rate of self-regulation, the inability to manage problems that are not self-control or control mechanisms, high prevalence of anger, and a tendency to react in very stressful situations. The condition has a significant role for those who suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder and other mental disorders where stress can manifest as feelings of isolation, hopelessness, or despair with poor social/emotional coping skills. The mental disorders of obsessive-compulsive and post-convulsive disorders contribute to the condition, especially at the genetic level. Neuroanatomical research indicates that anxiety disorders have neurobiology in their basic structure, although there is also a strong literature supporting and in some cases proposing an association. Furthermore, the psychological states of anorexia nervosa and GAD are associated with a wide variety of psychological disorders. One limitation of the scientific literature is that it is unlikely that the exact neurobiology of the disorders which affect the person with a mental disorder can be traced back to some other causes, especially neurodevelopmental or pathological brain development. The authors will discuss aspects of the mechanisms of anxiety, schizophrenia, and depression. Furthermore, they will discuss some of those symptoms that can cause brain disease. Lastly, they discuss the role of neurotransmitters in cognitive functions such as arousal and executive functioning in this condition.
[paragraph]
[citation needed]
[p>The Genetic Basis of Anxiety Disorders. Genital Disorders [link] [link] [link]
Genital disorders such as those of bulimia or dysmorphic bulimia have been implicated in all disorders characterized by some degree of genetic susceptibility. The authors will take on the following key issues: (i) The molecular basis of anxiety disorders. (ii) Common genetic variants that predispose individuals to a psychotic episode (e.g., bulirimia and dysmorphic bulimia). (iii) How genetic variants that produce the disorder are regulated. (iv) The extent to which certain genetic mechanisms work to control anxiety disorder. (v) The role of neurophysiological and metabolic regulation in the development of anxiety disorders. (vi) Genetics influences mental functioning, mental health
Part A: SchizophreniaSchizophrenia is undoubtedly one of the most complex psychiatric disorders of all time. A disorder which name defines the “splitting of psychic functions (Pinel, 2007, p.481)”, Schizophrenia often presents itself with a variety of characteristic symptoms including possible delusions, hallucinations, disorganized or incoherent speech, grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior patterns and negative symptoms (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Social and occupational dysfunction often accompany these characteristic symptoms of Schizophrenia and the combination of function impairment and symptoms must persist in duration for a period of 6 months to warrant a diagnosis of Schizophrenia (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).
Causal Theories and Neural BasisVarious theories surround the causal factors related to the development of Schizophrenia. There is evidence that the disorder may result from genetic predisposition resulting from the Schizophrenia diagnosis in a close, first degree relative (Pinel, 2007). This predisposition, combined with experiences involving significant trauma or stress, may trigger the later development of the disorder. In addition, those with the genetic predisposition for Schizophrenia often show evidence which suggest neurodevelopment hindrances related to early infection, autoimmune reactions and toxin exposure which may increase the likelihood of developing the disorder (Pinel, 2007).
Alternate theory suggests Schizophrenia to have a connection to increased dopamine levels. Specific attention has been drawn to the D2 receptors. Research findings involving phenothiazines which bind to both D1 and D2 receptors and butyrophenones which bind only to the D2 receptors support that Schizophrenia is possibly caused by hyperactivity at the D2 receptor site and not dopamine receptor sites in general (Pinel, 2007). Although research related to the D2 receptor is substantive, the neural basis of the disorder may aid in further understanding of Schizophrenia (Pinel, 2007).
More recent research implies Schizophrenia to have a connection with more than the D2 receptors. Atypical neuroleptic drugs, which are not primary blockers of the D2 receptors, such as clozapine show only slight effect on the D2 receptors but increased effect on other receptors including the D1 and D4 receptors as well as multiple serotonin receptors (Pinel, 2007). In addition, the fact that neuroleptic drug therapy requires several weeks to alleviate the symptoms of Schizophrenia while effectively blocking the activity at the D2 receptors within only hours suggests blocking these receptors is not the key to the etiology of the disorder (Pinel, 2007). Furthermore, the neuroleptic therapies fail to help all individuals diagnosed with Schizophrenic disorder. While typically effective in treating the positive symptoms including incoherence, hallucinations and delusions the neuroleptic drugs are less effective in the treatment of negative symptoms related to affect, cognitive deficits and speech dysfunction. Therefore, the D2 theory of hyperactivity at the receptor site remains challenged by the fact that if this theory were complete both the positive and negative symptoms of the disorder would be alleviated by the neuroleptic therapies (Pinel, 2007).
Additional consideration revolving Schizophrenia etiology results from brain imaging studies which commonly evidence extensive abnormalities of the brain including small cerebral cortex and enlarged cerebral ventricles (Pinel, 2007). The results of these brain image studies lends further merit to the idea of early neural development issues as bearing connection to the development of Schizophrenia. Also notable in the Schizophrenia cases is the lack of normal brain laterality which the dopamine theory would fail to explain (Pinel, 2007).
Appropriate Drug TherapiesWhile psychotherapy and group or family therapy may aid in the success of treating the Schizophrenic patient these treatment options must be used in combination with effective drug therapy to address the complex symptoms related to the disorder (Grohol, 2008). Drug therapy also may require a combination of antipsychotic, antidepressant and anti anxiety medications to wholly manage and address the patients range of symptoms (Grohol, 2008). Due to the likelihood of patient discontinuation of medication as a result of drug ineffectiveness or side effects which the patient finds intolerable drug therapy must be carefully considered and monitored throughout the course of treatment (Grohol, 2008).
Therapy should include proper patient education with regard to possible medication side effects, dosage and length of treatment with emphasis on coping strategies related to side effects. Patient medical history, current illness, age, target symptoms, compliance abilities and possible interactions of other drugs should also be assessed prior to developing a treatment plan (Bailey, 1998). Throughout treatment the patient progress should be monitored to address dosage adjustments, responsiveness to treatment, patient compliance with treatment and tolerance to side effects (Bailey, 1998).
Clozapine should be considered for the Schizophrenic individual as this pharmaceutical option has been shown to be more effective than many of the newer antipsychotic medications available (Grohol, 2008). It should be noted that many antipsychotic medications carry the risk of a plethora of troublesome side effects which will need to be monitored throughout the course of treatment. These side effects can include visual disturbances, gastrointestinal complaints, central nervous dysfunction, sedation, skin discoloration, and photosensitivity, reduced sweating ability or possible allergic reaction which may vary in severity and duration (Bailey, 1998).
Part B: Case Studies on Anorexia Nervosa and