Compare and Contrast Theories of Drug Use and DependencePeople worldwide use drugs for various reasons. Likewise, people become dependent to these substances for a number of reasons. Drug use refers to the consumption of drugs or prescription medication (Mathers et al, 2007). Although there is no universal definition, âdependenceâ is often invoked to explain motivation to use a drug and the difficulty in sustaining abstinence (Fagerstrom, 1978; Hughes, Gust, Skoog, Keenan, & Fenwick, 1991; Stitzer & Gross, 1988; West, Hajek, & Belcher, 1989). However, there is little agreement as to its definition, its cardinal manifestations, or its underlying processes (Kenford et al, 2002). Despite variation in the definition of dependence, there is general agreement that an inability to achieve sustained abstinence from drug use is a central feature.
The Diagnosis of Dependence: How to Treat a Dependent for Life The Diagnosis of Dependence is often referred to as a life-ending disease (Tatae et al, 1998). Despite the need for a definitive diagnosis, it can also be difficult to get the diagnosis correct (Hahn, 2004). As a result, the treatment of a dependent is usually difficult and requires a complex clinical intervention that attempts to address a range of symptoms. However, there is an extensive literature suggesting a diagnosis for this disorder. As the primary diagnosis for the disorder can include any mental, behavioral, or emotional disturbance and/or the ability to resist withdrawal from the drug (e.g., dependent on other drugs), it can be crucial in identifying a person’s degree to whom the disorder is manifest. For example, a person with borderline personality disorder may be classified as being a dependent on either methamphetamine or other prescription opioids. An independent medical team, in partnership with a provider from research, research, or treatment, can evaluate these and other factors. Other indicators of dependency include: 1) The frequency of attempts to withdraw from drug use. 2) Whether an individual experienced withdrawal more often for a time period than the general population. 3) Whether other medications or mental health needs are present despite abstaining (exposure to withdrawal-inducing conditions). An individual should also be considered for any risk factors associated with a significant proportion of the time in which this disorder is present. 4) Whether the condition worsens to the onset of dependence. The use of prescription drugs and/or pharmacological interventions for a person with borderline personality disorder may be the primary cause of this disorder. A person with borderline personality disorder becomes dependent more frequently then other people, and may also experience the disease later and more often than non-depressed persons. In addition, in some states, the term “depression.” There are multiple criteria for depression and a diagnosis of depression is expected before age 15, and a depressive disorder is also expected before age 65. For severe cases, a diagnosis of depression occurs when an individual is diagnosed with an acute episode of suicidal ideation or has suicidal thoughts about suicide. Depression tends to take on a more profound effect on a person’s life than other health issues, particularly with regard to substance abuse, substance use disorder, and suicide attempts. In this context, there can be little doubt that an individual with borderline personality disorder (DBOS) will need to seek treatment in an attempt to develop a meaningful normal life.
2. Diagnosis of Dependence and Diagnoses of Depressive Symptoms While there is considerable debate as to the diagnosis of depressionâa common diagnostic issue among the DSM-5 members (including those who have never met an antidepressant use disorder or use to treat symptoms associated with depression)âit is known from current information that depressive symptoms occur in roughly 60% of depression reports. In their report, the DSM-5 includes a series of criteria that define what depressionâor anxietyâis. This allows the authors to offer a range of treatment options. For example, depression typically develops over time if the person is experiencing low mood (eg., experiencing high self-esteem). Anxiety and depression typically worsen after the person is experiencing depression. The authors have also developed a new list of depression symptoms associated with drug abuse. These criteria include: A low quality of
Although the exact cause of drug use and dependence is unknown, the literature illustrates an abundance of theories in regards to drug addiction and dependence, as well as demonstrating the controversy as to the underlying reason behind drug dependence. There are three broad types of explanations of drug use and dependence; biological theories, psychological theories and sociological theories (Scheier, 2009). Each focuses on a number of different factors as crucial in determining why people use and abuse substances (Scheier, 2009). Within each type, there are a range of specific theories. This essay will address two predominant psychological models of drug use and dependence. There are two distinctly different types of reinforcement, positive and negative, and consequently two different models that cite reinforcement as a mechanism in continued drug use; the physical dependence model and the positive reinforcement model. The essay will begin by providing an explanation of both models main underlying assumptions. It will explore empirical research evidence for both models before moving on to a detailed discussion of the predominant similarities and differences between both models. The essay will conclude by suggesting that to obtain a detailed account of the motivational forces behind drug use and dependence, we should aim to view each explanation as complementary rather than contradictory in nature.
Physical Dependence ModelThe physical dependence model was developed in an attempt to account for the state where the discontinuation of a drug would cause withdrawal symptoms. The sickness that remains after the effects of a drug have diminished suggests that after repeated exposure to certain drugs, withdrawal symptoms appear if the drug is discontinued. As withdrawal effects are unpleasant, they would constitute negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcement occurs when an individual does something to seek relief or to avoid pain, thereby being rewarded and hence motivated to do whatever it was that achieved relief or alleviated the pain (Baker, Piper, McCarthy, Majeskie & Fiore, 2004). With respect
to the physical dependence model, most studies had found it to be a good model to consider, but the problem started to become known when pharmacists started asking whether or not the dependence on a drug was actually a symptom of a substance’s physical dependence because of their understanding of its effects, such that their study had often failed. Here the dependence model was developed to address this problem: we tested whether the dependence on a prescription drug reduced withdrawal symptoms, which was shown to be the case with a certain class of drugs (see [1]. Although these drug dependence problems were not shown to be particularly frequent with current use, their dependence may be more serious, such as a chronic pain and some other issues). In this research, a large body of the literature was presented on the possibility that some individual substance users also had a dependence on a prescription drug, as well as on certain prescription drug interactions (see [2]. However, the present results have been considered preliminary, as we were not able to determine for sure whether a particular prescription drug had a strong dependence on the drug, which could be due to other factors, including alcohol, smoking, smoking cessation, or both). Therefore, it is possible that the dependence on a prescribed drug, as well as other substances in a drug’s supply, reduces a person’s psychological dependence when treated with the dependence model. We therefore conducted a meta-analysis to evaluate the effect of a dependency on another class of drugs (e.g., a substance known for short term harm reduction after a withdrawal of the medication) on withdrawal symptoms in patients presenting with withdrawal from their prescribed substance. Of note is how this meta-analysis was conducted, and how it was interpreted by other researchers. In other words, it was not found to be that those taking both drugs had a dependence on each, but that the effects of their dependence on other drugs are different (with an advantage, for example, for alcohol). With the current data, further studies might be required to test for the physical dependence from other substances, including alcohol, smoking, or both.
Clinical studies On average, the studies that assessed the effects of various drugs (e.g., anabolic steroids, povidone) on patients receiving treatment for symptoms of depression, anxiety disorders, and pain symptoms as well as on the dependence from these drugs were performed in an attempt to elucidate the relationship between the effects of different substances on the same subject. First of all, we tested whether it was possible in some way to measure any physical dependence of the substances by their physical dependence in comparison groups. Our results suggested that drugs have a stronger relationship to the physical dependence (e.g., a weaker physical dependence on a given drug for symptom relief), and were not more reliable on this measure, in other words that the physical dependence was stronger after a particular drug has been discontinued. This conclusion was not drawn here because the study population was not