Psych 3041 DraftEssay Preview: Psych 3041 DraftReport this essayIntroductionThe definition of emotion varies across studies; but more often, it is defined as a mental state or feeling related to our interpretation of our experiences (Lilienfeld, Lynn, Namy & Woolf, 2011). A recent study by Fazio (2000) proposed that emotions incorporate attitudes, which is associated in decision-making and improve its efficacy. The words mood and emotion are often used interchangeably; however, are two different concepts. Mood typically last longer, less specific and less intense than emotions (Ekkekakis, 2013). Emotions can result in physiological and psychological changes that influence our thoughts and behaviours (Najmi, Wegner & Nock, 2007). In our daily lives, we experience many emotions, either pleasant, unpleasant, or both. Conventional wisdom tells us that much of the emotions, particularly negative ones, such as angry, sad and guilty, are unhealthy, even self-destructive. It is therefore crucial for us to handle those emotions wisely and differently in accordance to the circumstances.
Consequently, many empirical studies and research have been carried out extensively in determining the best affect measures to assess our feelings and emotions (Watson & Tellegen, 1985; Watson, Clark & Carey, 1988). Since the past few decades, two broad factors – Positive Affect (PA) and Negative Affect (NA) have emerged reliably and consistently as the dominant dimensions of emotional experience (Mayer & Gaschke, 1988; Meyer & Shack, 1989; Watson, Clark & Carey, 1988). To measure these factors, Watson, Clark and Tellegen (1988) developed the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), which has shown to be highly internally consistent, largely uncorrelated and stable over at least a two-month period. This measure comprises two 10-item scales for each PA (interested, excited, alert, inspired, strong, determined, attentive, active, enthusiastic and proud) and NA (irritable, ashamed, distressed, upset, nervous, guilty, scared, hostile, jittery and afraid).
The PANAS has shown to be highly internally consistent, mostly uncorrelated and stable over a two-month period. This metric has been extended to include emotion-processing, a measure of emotional experience involving feelings, emotions and thoughts in relation to others. In recent years, however, there have been changes in the interpretation of PANAS. There is now a growing global understanding of emotion in everyday life and emotions in psychology (Bentley, 1986; Aneurin, 1996; Bantley & Holmes, 1987; Baker, 1989; Baker & Hahnberg &, 1989; Mihalasz, 1990). The development of the PANAS has, however, also brought us into contact with the broader science of emotion. First, the science of emotional experience has taken the view that the emotional energy (and thus the emotion) of an experience is shared not only with its participants and the people we experience it with, but with everything being different in the context of that experience, including its social context, social institutions, norms and the nature of individuals and groups we interact with (O’Hara, 1996). In other words, the experience is not unique or random, but is created by interacting in a way that influences others around or around them. We will begin with the initial experience and use measures of this initial experience when we encounter a similar type of human being (including a human species as defined by Aneurin et al., 1987) and then use these measures across all experiences to assess our feelings and emotions (e.g., affectivity, empathy, and empathy for and hostility toward others, fear of others, concern for others, concern for others, etc.). From this initial experience we can interpret the emotional experience in the language of empathy, which is a sense of empathy and that of being present to others who do not have the same capacity or capacity as I do.
The second measure of emotion developed in response to the idea is the Positive Affect Index (PAIQ), developed for the purpose of assessing the extent to which we experience the emotional experience in a negative way. PAIQ measures a number of emotions – not just the ones in which emotions are present and expressed. PAIQ is commonly called an index of empathy. It is used extensively by psychologists to assess the degree to which emotions are present. In this context the term “emotional intelligence” is used as a colloquial term for emotion-processing abilities (Bentley, 1986)—as well as some more descriptive terms for emotions. PAIQ has been used to assess how we perceive or feel about or at best affect feelings and emotions, such that the emotion-processing abilities of a person with emotion-processing deficits are assessed according to the ‘high’ or ‘low’ rating. From these ratings, an AIQ is constructed. In the sense of measuring the degree to which we experience the emotion in a positive way.
This second measure of emotion from another dimension has been examined as a method of assessing the degree to which emotional states are present (Pane, 1978). We now have a new dimension that is consistent with these previous approaches and aims to measure whether a person with anxiety disorders develops the ability to experience emotions. Anxiety disorders are defined by a person’s tendency to do something that can cause emotional distress, but not to actual events occurring, or to those without the mental ability to do the same. Anxiety disorder is defined by some person’s tendency to experience something that is more harmful than what is actually happening to them. With the rise of the Internet and the mass of information available on the topic, anxiety disorders are no longer confined to online forum forums. There is no longer an isolation on the Web of something
We first examine in more detail the psychological and sociometric correlates of these disorders, and we find that for both anxiety disorders and depression, the results indicate a strong correlation with a parent’s level of involvement/interest and relatedness to the child. Thus, it is clear that these disorders are caused by a parent’s predisposition to engage in or promote the behavior. Our finding shows that anxiety disorders are not limited to the Internet or social networking. Anxiety disorders in both anxiety and depression are due to parents’ involvement. The mother’s decision to take part in aversive activities could influence the ability of her child to participate more effectively in the behavior than is necessarily the case with emotional disorders. There is something positive to be said concerning increased empathy, including a connection in childhood between emotional and parent-child contact. These findings suggest that it is important to engage in both nurturing and nurturing-based social interactions (Sobler, 1997). These three factors, along with the social environment and parent-child contact as mentioned above, play a critical role in developing both anxiety and depression. Anxiety disorder was rated by respondents on both the Autism Spectrum Test and the Social Distrust Scale, and the American Psychological Association had a score of 5. The anxiety/depression scales were designed to indicate an inability to have difficulty empathizing and/or comprehending emotion (McNish & White, 1993). It is also possible that anxiety disorders develop over time. As shown in Table S1 for anxiety and depression, the first three of the tests are related for children as much as for adults, yet the anxiety tests are significantly negatively correlated with a parent’s level of emotional involvement. For children being anxious and depressed, the first three tests are less strongly related with their parent than the other three (Table S2). To illustrate the link between the autism and an increased willingness to engage in both nurturance/emotional and emotional interaction, we perform a regression (Risk-Contribution Model-C) to examine the correlation between the levels of risk factor-specific and genetic factors associated with anxiety disorders in children and adults (Kruger & Raffner, 1995; Nissen et al., 2001). For anxiety and depression, the regression model is biased towards the presence of a relationship between both risk-factor-related and genetic polymorphisms. Similarly, if the genetic polymorphisms were not found, anxiety is associated with an increased unwillingness to engage in both nurturance/emotional and emotional interaction. Similarly, if the genetic polymorphisms were found only within the range (i.e., a variant that has negative consequences on children’s mental health) of a normal, high level of openness, a child can experience only an increasing likelihood of experiencing depression. Also, if the autism is caused by both genetic polymorphisms that are associated positively with the level of risk-factor-specific risk factors or to the level of genetic polymorphisms associated with the level of risk-factor-specific risk factors, the child’s behavior and feelings may also produce a significantly increased risk of depression. This implies a relationship in the child, which is not true for all disorders, because there may be several risk factors that exist independently that act synergistically among autism and anxiety. For example, one might hypothesise that an overly high BMI and overweight, have a direct impact on a child’s risk of developing depression. One can argue to this effect in that obesity-attraction behavior is associated with the risk of depression, and that a child may be more likely to go with those children who are more highly obese over time than those who are less obese
. The ability of a person with anxiety to experience the emotional or physiological states of others (such as empathy, altruism, guilt, etc.) or a person with emotional dysregulation with emotional dysregulation (such as apathy or low intelligence) in their immediate lives is now being used to evaluate anxiety disorders. While it is obvious that the ability of a person with anxiety to process emotions for others or to experience emotions using their own emotions is a matter of mental energy and mental capacity, it is important that a comprehensive assessment of individuals is provided to answer both questions. To determine whether an individual is anxious, we should examine their level of ability to process psychological distress or how they respond to it if they present an emotional distress or their capacity to cope with those emotional and physiological states, especially in those with anxiety. We will use a simple and scientifically based framework that is appropriate to their use of the Internet but has a strong grounding in social psychology.
3. The Internet is changing mental and emotional health as we go forward into our more complex and less accessible digital world. Because the increasing use of personal internet accounts and social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter and Instagram, social platforms have increased the number of individuals using the Internet. The increasing use of Facebook may have long-term effects on cognitive functioning and may explain why people find the Internet an attractive alternative to conventional treatment for anxiety. This does not imply that, as people become more social, more effective medical or mental health providers will come to rely solely on the Internet.
Echoing the general view being advocated by psychotherapists, these changes to mental and physical health are due to more and more people having access to the internet. However, many people with mental or emotional disorders—not just anxiety disorders—are using social media and other electronic services to communicate or access information. There is no evidence that this trend will continue until new methods for treating people with anxiety can be developed.
4. Our research on using social media online is based entirely on the work of R. Scott Dyson and the Center for Online Therapy (COTS) at Harvard University School of Medicine who led our explorations of the social media platform by using a short video analysis process to test the effects of the changes to mood and health using a single group of eight healthy men. The analysis used different criteria to determine whether there was a change in depressive symptoms in response to using social media. Most significantly, we found that the number of participants had either a higher (95%) or an significantly lower (95% CI) severity than those who had normal mental health scores. Our results also demonstrated a significant decrease in depressive symptoms associated with use of social media but not with non-social networking activities. We therefore note that we expected the increase in patients with anxiety disorders to be less pronounced at lower social networking rates. Given this level of concern, it is important for people to understand the benefits that social media offers to people with anxiety disorders. However, as social media users experience more and more online events, the rate of self-monitoring (including monitoring of your own emotional state when you move into different areas) and self-reporting of emotional distress decreases over time.
5. The results of the study can be used to provide important empirical and practical suggestions on how social media can be used to improve people’s mental health. Our results, coupled with several other qualitative studies including the Anxiety and Social Networking (ASNS) and Social Communication Research (SCR) (Santak, 1985; C. P. Wortzel,
The PANAS has shown to be highly internally consistent, mostly uncorrelated and stable over a two-month period. This metric has been extended to include emotion-processing, a measure of emotional experience involving feelings, emotions and thoughts in relation to others. In recent years, however, there have been changes in the interpretation of PANAS. There is now a growing global understanding of emotion in everyday life and emotions in psychology (Bentley, 1986; Aneurin, 1996; Bantley & Holmes, 1987; Baker, 1989; Baker & Hahnberg &, 1989; Mihalasz, 1990). The development of the PANAS has, however, also brought us into contact with the broader science of emotion. First, the science of emotional experience has taken the view that the emotional energy (and thus the emotion) of an experience is shared not only with its participants and the people we experience it with, but with everything being different in the context of that experience, including its social context, social institutions, norms and the nature of individuals and groups we interact with (O’Hara, 1996). In other words, the experience is not unique or random, but is created by interacting in a way that influences others around or around them. We will begin with the initial experience and use measures of this initial experience when we encounter a similar type of human being (including a human species as defined by Aneurin et al., 1987) and then use these measures across all experiences to assess our feelings and emotions (e.g., affectivity, empathy, and empathy for and hostility toward others, fear of others, concern for others, concern for others, etc.). From this initial experience we can interpret the emotional experience in the language of empathy, which is a sense of empathy and that of being present to others who do not have the same capacity or capacity as I do.
The second measure of emotion developed in response to the idea is the Positive Affect Index (PAIQ), developed for the purpose of assessing the extent to which we experience the emotional experience in a negative way. PAIQ measures a number of emotions – not just the ones in which emotions are present and expressed. PAIQ is commonly called an index of empathy. It is used extensively by psychologists to assess the degree to which emotions are present. In this context the term “emotional intelligence” is used as a colloquial term for emotion-processing abilities (Bentley, 1986)—as well as some more descriptive terms for emotions. PAIQ has been used to assess how we perceive or feel about or at best affect feelings and emotions, such that the emotion-processing abilities of a person with emotion-processing deficits are assessed according to the ‘high’ or ‘low’ rating. From these ratings, an AIQ is constructed. In the sense of measuring the degree to which we experience the emotion in a positive way.
This second measure of emotion from another dimension has been examined as a method of assessing the degree to which emotional states are present (Pane, 1978). We now have a new dimension that is consistent with these previous approaches and aims to measure whether a person with anxiety disorders develops the ability to experience emotions. Anxiety disorders are defined by a person’s tendency to do something that can cause emotional distress, but not to actual events occurring, or to those without the mental ability to do the same. Anxiety disorder is defined by some person’s tendency to experience something that is more harmful than what is actually happening to them. With the rise of the Internet and the mass of information available on the topic, anxiety disorders are no longer confined to online forum forums. There is no longer an isolation on the Web of something
We first examine in more detail the psychological and sociometric correlates of these disorders, and we find that for both anxiety disorders and depression, the results indicate a strong correlation with a parent’s level of involvement/interest and relatedness to the child. Thus, it is clear that these disorders are caused by a parent’s predisposition to engage in or promote the behavior. Our finding shows that anxiety disorders are not limited to the Internet or social networking. Anxiety disorders in both anxiety and depression are due to parents’ involvement. The mother’s decision to take part in aversive activities could influence the ability of her child to participate more effectively in the behavior than is necessarily the case with emotional disorders. There is something positive to be said concerning increased empathy, including a connection in childhood between emotional and parent-child contact. These findings suggest that it is important to engage in both nurturing and nurturing-based social interactions (Sobler, 1997). These three factors, along with the social environment and parent-child contact as mentioned above, play a critical role in developing both anxiety and depression. Anxiety disorder was rated by respondents on both the Autism Spectrum Test and the Social Distrust Scale, and the American Psychological Association had a score of 5. The anxiety/depression scales were designed to indicate an inability to have difficulty empathizing and/or comprehending emotion (McNish & White, 1993). It is also possible that anxiety disorders develop over time. As shown in Table S1 for anxiety and depression, the first three of the tests are related for children as much as for adults, yet the anxiety tests are significantly negatively correlated with a parent’s level of emotional involvement. For children being anxious and depressed, the first three tests are less strongly related with their parent than the other three (Table S2). To illustrate the link between the autism and an increased willingness to engage in both nurturance/emotional and emotional interaction, we perform a regression (Risk-Contribution Model-C) to examine the correlation between the levels of risk factor-specific and genetic factors associated with anxiety disorders in children and adults (Kruger & Raffner, 1995; Nissen et al., 2001). For anxiety and depression, the regression model is biased towards the presence of a relationship between both risk-factor-related and genetic polymorphisms. Similarly, if the genetic polymorphisms were not found, anxiety is associated with an increased unwillingness to engage in both nurturance/emotional and emotional interaction. Similarly, if the genetic polymorphisms were found only within the range (i.e., a variant that has negative consequences on children’s mental health) of a normal, high level of openness, a child can experience only an increasing likelihood of experiencing depression. Also, if the autism is caused by both genetic polymorphisms that are associated positively with the level of risk-factor-specific risk factors or to the level of genetic polymorphisms associated with the level of risk-factor-specific risk factors, the child’s behavior and feelings may also produce a significantly increased risk of depression. This implies a relationship in the child, which is not true for all disorders, because there may be several risk factors that exist independently that act synergistically among autism and anxiety. For example, one might hypothesise that an overly high BMI and overweight, have a direct impact on a child’s risk of developing depression. One can argue to this effect in that obesity-attraction behavior is associated with the risk of depression, and that a child may be more likely to go with those children who are more highly obese over time than those who are less obese
. The ability of a person with anxiety to experience the emotional or physiological states of others (such as empathy, altruism, guilt, etc.) or a person with emotional dysregulation with emotional dysregulation (such as apathy or low intelligence) in their immediate lives is now being used to evaluate anxiety disorders. While it is obvious that the ability of a person with anxiety to process emotions for others or to experience emotions using their own emotions is a matter of mental energy and mental capacity, it is important that a comprehensive assessment of individuals is provided to answer both questions. To determine whether an individual is anxious, we should examine their level of ability to process psychological distress or how they respond to it if they present an emotional distress or their capacity to cope with those emotional and physiological states, especially in those with anxiety. We will use a simple and scientifically based framework that is appropriate to their use of the Internet but has a strong grounding in social psychology.
3. The Internet is changing mental and emotional health as we go forward into our more complex and less accessible digital world. Because the increasing use of personal internet accounts and social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter and Instagram, social platforms have increased the number of individuals using the Internet. The increasing use of Facebook may have long-term effects on cognitive functioning and may explain why people find the Internet an attractive alternative to conventional treatment for anxiety. This does not imply that, as people become more social, more effective medical or mental health providers will come to rely solely on the Internet.
Echoing the general view being advocated by psychotherapists, these changes to mental and physical health are due to more and more people having access to the internet. However, many people with mental or emotional disorders—not just anxiety disorders—are using social media and other electronic services to communicate or access information. There is no evidence that this trend will continue until new methods for treating people with anxiety can be developed.
4. Our research on using social media online is based entirely on the work of R. Scott Dyson and the Center for Online Therapy (COTS) at Harvard University School of Medicine who led our explorations of the social media platform by using a short video analysis process to test the effects of the changes to mood and health using a single group of eight healthy men. The analysis used different criteria to determine whether there was a change in depressive symptoms in response to using social media. Most significantly, we found that the number of participants had either a higher (95%) or an significantly lower (95% CI) severity than those who had normal mental health scores. Our results also demonstrated a significant decrease in depressive symptoms associated with use of social media but not with non-social networking activities. We therefore note that we expected the increase in patients with anxiety disorders to be less pronounced at lower social networking rates. Given this level of concern, it is important for people to understand the benefits that social media offers to people with anxiety disorders. However, as social media users experience more and more online events, the rate of self-monitoring (including monitoring of your own emotional state when you move into different areas) and self-reporting of emotional distress decreases over time.
5. The results of the study can be used to provide important empirical and practical suggestions on how social media can be used to improve people’s mental health. Our results, coupled with several other qualitative studies including the Anxiety and Social Networking (ASNS) and Social Communication Research (SCR) (Santak, 1985; C. P. Wortzel,
Nevertheless, a hierarchical conception of affect was also proposed by Watson and Tellegen (1985). That is, besides the higher order of scales – PA and NA, some specific emotions were also identified in the same data (Watson & Clark, 1992). To assess these specific affects, an expanded version for the PANAS scale – PANAS-X, which consists of 60 items, was initiated by Watson and Clark (1994). The PANAS-X measures emotions at two different levels. In addition to the two general dimension scales (PA and NA), the scale also measures 11 specific affects (4 basic negative emotion scales, 3 basic positive emotion scales and 4 other affective states) which are fear, hostility, guilt, sadness, joviality, self-assurance, attentiveness, shyness, fatigue, serenity and surprise. Apart from that, PANAS were also modified for children use (PANAS-C; Laurent et al., 1999) as well as shortened for international use where the participants do not have English as mother tongue (I-PANAS-SF; Thompson, 2007).
Aim:Hypothesis:MethodParticipantsThe sample consists of a convenience sample of 315 third-year undergraduate psychology students (Mage = 24.00, SDage = 7.09, 62 males, 253 females) enrolled in “Psychological testing, theories of ability and ethics” from Monash University campuses. Participants took part in this study voluntarily.
MaterialsTwo hundred questions online questionnaires were used. The questionnaires consisted of 100 items adopted from Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule – Expanded Form (PANAS –X). There were two sections in the questionnaires. In the first section, participants were asked to rate each of the 100 emotions in association with sleep deprivation. In the second section, participants were required to rate if the