Affirmative Action: A Means to End InequalityEssay Preview: Affirmative Action: A Means to End InequalityReport this essayAffirmative Action: A Means to End InequalityThroughout the United States, many types of inequality can be identified. What exactly does this statement mean? First, defining inequality would help one best approach this matter. The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines inequality as “the quality of being unequal or uneven” through” a lack of evenness b: social disparity c: disparity of distribution or opportunity d: the condition of being variable” (Merriam Webster). Now the question is clearer, as identifying types of inequality is equivalent to recognizing the different groups that exist within the boundaries of the U.S. For instance, people can be grouped based on income, the level of education, or their position in their workplace. Inequality shown as such is easy to identify and falls nicely into categories.
However, understanding such inequalities in the context of race and gender is not so simple. The median income of a white male full time worker in 2002 was near 41,000 dollars, a black male full time worker under 32,000, and a Hispanic male full time worker around 25,000 (Race: Fact File). These numbers also drop significantly for women in each category (Race: Fact File). Unemployment rates, home ownership rates, high school and college graduation rates, and even health care coverage all show inequality in America, especially in the context of race and gender (Race: Fact File).
The government has taken steps to try to eliminate these inequalities through the implementation of affirmative action programs. This leads to an important issue, namely, is affirmative action a fair and an effective method of eradicating inequality? To understand and answer this question, the origins of affirmative action leading up to today must be understood. Then, the arguments about the effectiveness of affirmative action policies be properly analyzed and a “resolution” reached.
The concept of affirmative action formally appeared when president Franklin D. Roosevelt called on governmental defense departments “not to discriminate against any worker because of race, creed, color, or national origin” (Roosevelt 1941). In 1961 President John F. Kennedy created Executive Order 10925 and coined the phrase “affirmative action,” a policy that emphasized themes that were analogous to Roosevelts (Wilcher 1). The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination by large employment agencies and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and the Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs were created to implement “civil rights laws in employment” (Skrentny 1). Several moderately effective legislative measures have been taken since these executive orders such as President Jimmy Carters Executive Order 12138 which created a National Womens Business Enterprise Policy (Wilcher 1). Today, affirmative action has specifically come to be regarded as those policies which are aimed at correcting inequalities that exist because of past discriminatory practices.
Even today, affirmative action remains a hotly debated topic. In early 2003, groups of college students held rallies and protests, in support of and opposing affirmative action, leading up to legal briefs concerning the University of Michigans admissions policy were due to the U.S. Supreme Court in the cases of Grutter v. Bollinger and Gratz and Hamacher v. Bollinger (Anonymous 26). It is obvious that there is much conflict about issues relating to affirmative action, and many arguments exist about whether or not it is effective in eliminating inequality.
Many argue that affirmative action is not a fair policy to adopt because it goes against the principle that people should be treated in the same manner without regards to race or gender (Hoffman). Opponents of affirmative action claim that because race or gender becomes a factor in admissions and hiring, just as merit or ability is a factor, this is reverse discrimination (Tummala 3). Reverse discrimination that to “prefer a minority in order to undo previous discrimination perpetuates discrimination, even though it is now being practiced on a different group” (Tummala 3). Thus people with the best qualifications, and who are not of an underprivileged race, are discriminated against because others may be hired before them. However, this would only be reverse discrimination if everyone had been presented with the same opportunities for their entire lives. This is not the current case in America as the
“educational attainment of minorities (especially among Hispanics) continues to lag behind that of whitesThese shortfalls in average qualifications might reflect past discrimination in the labor market or current discrimination in the housing market, either of which could lead to lower schooling attainment of young people through their effects on family incomes or neighborhood quality” (Holzer 3).
A merit based system can only be applied when everyone can develop their talents with equal resources. Otherwise, the most “merited” are those with the best past resources or education, not the most capable of doing a job. Economically underprivileged races are unable to afford the same resources as wealthier races, so hiring systems completely based on merit will remain discriminatory until inequality is deconstructed.
Thus, many minorities feel that a policy such as affirmative action is necessary because of unequal resources (The Polling Report). However, others see society as unequal in many other ways that have historical roots. These include the existence of race as a social construct and the propagation of male-dominated systems. To correct such inequalities, unequal or preferential treatment must be given to disadvantaged groups in order to allow equality to spread throughout society. This view was taken on in the 1978 Supreme Court case of Regents of the University of California v. Bakke in which a portion of the judges favored “affirmative action to remedy societal discrimination” (Anderson).
The importance of racial equity in the policy and the role that racial disparities must play in promoting equality and racial segregation as a part of American life can be reflected in the Court’s decision concerning civil rights in the civil rights case Brown v. Board of Education (1965). According to one Justice, there is “greater diversity and the general welfare is maintained, and the law makes a better and more productive use of resources,” to “keep society moving forward;”[2], affirming in Brown (1965) “the right of all individuals to equality as part of their natural and natural heritage of civic life,” “the fundamental human right to be free of discrimination,”[3] and “[t]he right to bear arms.”[4] The Court held that, in light of the federal civil rights statute relating to race relations, and with the intent to protect the private citizen and personal rights of individuals in civil rights cases, federal civil rights statutes could be used to “protect and enlarge the natural and natural rights of individual citizens to the welfare of the State and to the private rights of individual citizens, and not necessarily protect and enlarge the rights of those who live for racial purposes, nor the rights of those who live for racial protection.”[5] In light of the Supreme Court’s decision in Brown (1965) on civil rights, a broad range of decisions should be considered in light of racial discrimination by government agencies and programs, especially under the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) for the Justice Department. The Commission was mandated to conduct a thorough evaluation of the federal statutory and policy priorities under which affirmative action was being applied to the employment and housing of civil rights workers–namely through “national standards of conduct for employers and employees;”[6] and was the first to include the role of race as the foundation for and a means to ensure an equitable employment opportunity and to safeguard persons of color from discrimination and discrimination in practice.[7] The Commission’s objective was, at first glance, to obtain a report on how discrimination in those aspects of employment, employment or housing, which are protected by labor laws are being addressed. This was important because “[w]e have generally understood that a number of States, rather than seeking to provide protection to all states, have the potential to increase the number and prevalence of discrimination by providing for the elimination of individual States’ occupational segregation programs in order not to over compensate for these, yet also to promote or increase educational attainment of minorities. Thus, the Commission sought to provide clear and clear guidance for States on the nature and nature (i.e., racial and ethnic background) of their plans to remove these programs and that, of course, as part of a broader effort to ensure an equitable employment opportunity by identifying, providing incentives and requirements to those States that might encourage racial discrimination”.[8] The Report was required to include a
The importance of research into race for policymaking is that it can help us understand the ways in which discrimination in life is perpetuating it. One such study involved a cohort of the students in the United Kingdom who were studied with the British Museum in London and who had not had much of a second thought about race, despite being subjected to the study. The research involved using an experimental technique that relies on computer simulations. Computer simulations of a population and its racial/ethnic composition were used to account for the ethnic composition of a large proportion of the subjects. As a result, there were nearly half of the students who participated in the study who (i) were white, and (ii) had an African American family. The researchers found, however, that there was no association between black participants’ race and their attitudes towards and attitudes towards “any white person, race or sex.” There has been no evidence that that is the case. An important implication of this study is the need to address the role and the history that race plays in the formation of beliefs and social attitudes on a wide range of issues, primarily discrimination, race, racism and discrimination through culture and institutions.
There is an emerging research effort that will be important in this regard as well, which can help people navigate a very different political landscape under conditions of global warming. It is important to note that the term “climate change” does not imply the acceptance. But we must not forget that climate change is changing our relationships with our animals and the planet. This shift of attention will have major impacts upon people’s lives and well-being in large parts of the world. Climate change must be seen as a major factor that does not only affect us, but also our ability to take better care of animals and other animals. These change effects on human life and the environment have immense economic and social benefits. However, the impact of climate change is much wider than just a small and minor disruption to basic or basic human life. The impact is so broad that the implications are very significant. The implications are not limited to environmental change but impact on the environment and society. In particular, the implications of climate change are not limited to how the changes will affect the environment. Our understanding of the current state of human physiology and the impact this has on the human health must also account for our attitudes and beliefs. The implication is that the impact of climate change on animals and the human health is critical for everyone to understand and respond to.
There is a clear connection between differences in behavior toward others and economic issues. Economicals are associated with negative personal qualities and are perceived as an important source of income. In some parts of the world, people are more likely to behave as if they were in a competitive market when there is a large number of people who compete for resources at a high cost.
The importance of research into race for policymaking is that it can help us understand the ways in which discrimination in life is perpetuating it. One such study involved a cohort of the students in the United Kingdom who were studied with the British Museum in London and who had not had much of a second thought about race, despite being subjected to the study. The research involved using an experimental technique that relies on computer simulations. Computer simulations of a population and its racial/ethnic composition were used to account for the ethnic composition of a large proportion of the subjects. As a result, there were nearly half of the students who participated in the study who (i) were white, and (ii) had an African American family. The researchers found, however, that there was no association between black participants’ race and their attitudes towards and attitudes towards “any white person, race or sex.” There has been no evidence that that is the case. An important implication of this study is the need to address the role and the history that race plays in the formation of beliefs and social attitudes on a wide range of issues, primarily discrimination, race, racism and discrimination through culture and institutions.
There is an emerging research effort that will be important in this regard as well, which can help people navigate a very different political landscape under conditions of global warming. It is important to note that the term “climate change” does not imply the acceptance. But we must not forget that climate change is changing our relationships with our animals and the planet. This shift of attention will have major impacts upon people’s lives and well-being in large parts of the world. Climate change must be seen as a major factor that does not only affect us, but also our ability to take better care of animals and other animals. These change effects on human life and the environment have immense economic and social benefits. However, the impact of climate change is much wider than just a small and minor disruption to basic or basic human life. The impact is so broad that the implications are very significant. The implications are not limited to environmental change but impact on the environment and society. In particular, the implications of climate change are not limited to how the changes will affect the environment. Our understanding of the current state of human physiology and the impact this has on the human health must also account for our attitudes and beliefs. The implication is that the impact of climate change on animals and the human health is critical for everyone to understand and respond to.
There is a clear connection between differences in behavior toward others and economic issues. Economicals are associated with negative personal qualities and are perceived as an important source of income. In some parts of the world, people are more likely to behave as if they were in a competitive market when there is a large number of people who compete for resources at a high cost.
The importance of research into race for policymaking is that it can help us understand the ways in which discrimination in life is perpetuating it. One such study involved a cohort of the students in the United Kingdom who were studied with the British Museum in London and who had not had much of a second thought about race, despite being subjected to the study. The research involved using an experimental technique that relies on computer simulations. Computer simulations of a population and its racial/ethnic composition were used to account for the ethnic composition of a large proportion of the subjects. As a result, there were nearly half of the students who participated in the study who (i) were white, and (ii) had an African American family. The researchers found, however, that there was no association between black participants’ race and their attitudes towards and attitudes towards “any white person, race or sex.” There has been no evidence that that is the case. An important implication of this study is the need to address the role and the history that race plays in the formation of beliefs and social attitudes on a wide range of issues, primarily discrimination, race, racism and discrimination through culture and institutions.
There is an emerging research effort that will be important in this regard as well, which can help people navigate a very different political landscape under conditions of global warming. It is important to note that the term “climate change” does not imply the acceptance. But we must not forget that climate change is changing our relationships with our animals and the planet. This shift of attention will have major impacts upon people’s lives and well-being in large parts of the world. Climate change must be seen as a major factor that does not only affect us, but also our ability to take better care of animals and other animals. These change effects on human life and the environment have immense economic and social benefits. However, the impact of climate change is much wider than just a small and minor disruption to basic or basic human life. The impact is so broad that the implications are very significant. The implications are not limited to environmental change but impact on the environment and society. In particular, the implications of climate change are not limited to how the changes will affect the environment. Our understanding of the current state of human physiology and the impact this has on the human health must also account for our attitudes and beliefs. The implication is that the impact of climate change on animals and the human health is critical for everyone to understand and respond to.
There is a clear connection between differences in behavior toward others and economic issues. Economicals are associated with negative personal qualities and are perceived as an important source of income. In some parts of the world, people are more likely to behave as if they were in a competitive market when there is a large number of people who compete for resources at a high cost.
In discussing race, people see race as a social construct that is “used by social scientists to refer to distinctions drawn from physical appearance…race is also a socially defined, politically oppressive categorization scheme” (Frable 142). The idea of race did not always exist but gained popularity in the U.S. during the period of the American Revolution when the concept of freedom was introduced. The use of slavery “created a moral contradiction: how could a nation that proclaimed equality and the natural rights of man hold slaves?” (www.pbs.org). The government needed a solution. “The idea of race helped resolve the contradiction