Understanding Politics
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Understanding Notes #2 Liberalism
For the next few lectures we will be discussing the industrialized democracies of the West. In this category will be those states which have had functioning democracies for at least 40 years, and also posses highly developed capitalist economies. This category will include almost all of Western Europe, the United States, Canada, Oz, New Zealand, etc. Deal with Japan in a later context.
The term democracy in itself is somewhat problematic. Virtually all states claim to be democratic -DDR, DPRK, etc. This term has taken on heavy symbolic value and is often used to describe us, while other terms are used to denote them. There has been a difference of opinion as to what determines democracy – in the west we view it as the ability to exercise determinant influence on the direction of government policy; however, Marxism would contend that this is only an illusion. Our elections are presented as being facades that serve to dupe the people into believing that they exercise control over their lives, while in reality the government is simply a product of the desires of the elite. They contend that democracy is impossible without equality, and that their system is democratic as it provides for freedom from exploitation. This is purported to represent economic freedom for the masses.
**Pedicles and Four Elements of Democracy**
(1) government by the people, with their full and direct participation;
(2) equality before the law;
(3) pluralism, or the respect for different pursuits and viewpoints; and
(4) existence of a civil society.
However, for the purposes of this class, I will be employing the traditional definition of democracy which rests on two basic premises popular sovereignty and the social contract.
The former means that the public will have a regular choice as to the composition and orientation of its government. I.E. that it will be free to choose from alternative viewpoints in the exercise of policy. At this point, it is useful to draw a distinction between direct and representative democracy. Under direct democracy, the citizenry decides on policy issues through frequent meetings or referendums (referenda?). This is what we normally think of when we refer to Athenian democracy. However, this has problems of its own – Athens as a slave state, women.
In modern times, this has occurred very rarely, New England town halls, certain issues in Switzerland. It is difficult to organize on a national level (not only due to technical problems, but also the complexity of the issues involved). Consequently, the type of democracy which is most frequently practiced is representative democracy, where the citizenry elects people on the presumption that they will represent their interests in the functioning of govt.
The social contract is an agreement between the population and the government that involves the surrender of direct decision making powers in exchange for limitations on the actions of govt. I.E. the preservation of certain rights and freedoms. The people agree to consent to the decisions of government due to the restraints that they place on its behavior.
**We can divide democracy into five basic phases**
1. Focus on Personal Liberty – Locke
2. Focus on Economic Liberty – Smith
3. The Expansion of Rights – Rousseau
4. Positivism – Jeremy Bentham, Mill
5. Social Justice and the Welfare State – Social Democracy and Modern Liberalism.
To correspond to these basic phases, we will examine the first three under the heading of classical liberalism and the fourth under the broad heading of modern liberalism, and the last when examining modern liberalism and social democracy. (Problems with the term socialism). The ideology of conservatism will be examined separately, as it largely served as a means of shaping all of the phases listed above.
**Classical Liberalism**
This as a theory serves as the basis for the trend toward democracy in the 18th and 19th century Europe and North America. It emerged as a means of protest toward the absolute power held by the monarchs of Europe, usually with the collaboration of the church. Under the systems of feudalism and mercantilism, power was concentrated in the hands of the few. With regents seen as having acquired the exercise of power simply through the act of being born. Chosen by God to rule the country. Under this system the countries were carved up into feudal domains, where the right of rule was granted by the Sovereign due to some act of loyalty and then passed down through the family under this system. Within this right was certain responsibilities, that the Lord would come to the service of the crown when called upon, ex. in time of war and that he would provide his subjects with basic necessities in exchange for their service. The entire system was based on service, either to the crown or to the Lord, its representative.
However, the twin impulses of the enlightenment and the industrial revolution came to challenge the feudal order. Under the enlightenment, intellectual freedoms came to be granted, initially in the natural sciences and later in areas concerning the human condition – increased secularization of society – search for answers beyond those provided by the church. Industrial revolution created a producing class as well as displacing peasants, latter becomes important later, but the former was one of the initial contributing factors behind liberalism. Creation of a new class of business people joined the tradesman who had emerged during mercantilism seeking increased freedom and increased political influence. Beyond hereditary nobles. Liberalism was initially concerned with securing personal and economic freedom from the crush of feudalism. Naturally, it was opposed by the monarchy, the church, and the landed aristocracy.
**1. Personal Liberty**
Personal and economic liberty were the foundations of early liberalism, as new groups sought to gain additional freedom and influence within the state.
Perhaps the most influential proponent of the personal freedoms which constitute one of the bases of liberalism was John Locke. Locke (1632-1704) was an English